The following activities focus on one particular academic language feature at a time. You can either work through each in order or choose only those language features that you need to improve the most.
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1. Defining Concepts
Task
Read the definitions of the different concepts below. Rewrite the definitions in just one sentence in a more academic style and then compare your answer with the model. The beginning of each sentence has been given to you.
2. Hedging
In academic writing it is extremely important for the researcher to be aware that he/she may not always be entirely correct in their conclusions. There is always another opinion or there may be a number of reasons why the data obtained may not be entirely reliable. In academic writing it is therefore expected that the writer is truthful, does not generalise and expresses caution about their claims. This is achieved with the use of hedging devices.
Task1
Click on the more suitable word or phrase that contains a hedge in the following sentences.
Task2
The following paragraph is an extract from the article you were introduced to earlier:
Issues in assessing the academic writing of students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds: Preliminary findings from a study on lecturers’ beliefs and practices
The hedging devices have been removed from the paragraph. Your task is to enhance this piece of academic writing by incorporating appropriate hedging expressions. The symbol ^ indicates that you should insert a word or phrase into the sentence. When a word is bolded, such as are, you should replace the word with a suitable hedging device. If you need help, click on the Hint button to see a set of hedging devices from which you can choose your answer. Type your answers into the table below.
NS = Native speakers (of English)
NNS = Non-native speakers (of English)
O’Hagan’s (1999) study investigates possible differences in lecturers’ treatment of NS and NNS writing. Findings from her study (a) reveal that (b) ^ the assessment criteria applied to NS and NNS essays are the same, but that ‘marking schemes are (c) ^ modified in some way for non-native speaker essays’ (O’Hagan, 1999:37). In particular, O’Hagan concludes that lecturers
(d) are more lenient on some assessment criteria for NNS essays – namely grammar, spelling and vocabulary – and (e) ^ for structure/organization as well. What is particularly interesting about O’Hagan’s findings is her discussion of the conflict experienced by lecturers in dealing with the issue of same or different standards (O’Hagan, 1999:37). Her findings (f) show that there (g) is a conflict between the lecturers’ perceptions of how they should assess students’ work – that is, using a common standard regardless of language background – and what they are really doing in practice (O’Hagan, 1999:37).
| indicate | probably | sometimes |
| may (be) | commonly | is likely to |
| suggest | to a large extent | tend to |
| approximately | in general | seem |
3. Sophisticated Adverbs
Task 1
There are ten adjectives in the table below. Change the form of these words by writing the adverbs in the column on the right. The first one has been done for you.
| indicate | probably | sometimes |
| may (be) | commonly | is likely to |
| suggest | to a large extent | tend to |
| approximately | in general | seem |
Task2
Replace the underlined words and phrases in the sentences below taken from www.bbc.com with a more sophisticated adverb and type your answer in the boxes provided. Think carefully about where you should place the adverb in each sentence. Choose from the adverbs you have just created.
| relatively | repeatedly | increasingly | heavily | massively |
| clearly | recently | hastily | actively | routinely |
4. Complex Noun Phrases
Look how the following noun – case – becomes more complex as more information is added to it. We can add this information basically in three different ways:
- By adding adjectives
- By adding a prepositional phrase
- By adding a relative clause
Notice how this works in the sentences below.
| Complex Nouns | Grammar | |
| 1) | A case | Noun (N) |
| 2) | A phone case | Noun (N) + Noun (N) |
| 3) | A mobile phone case | Adjective (Adj) + N + N |
| 4) | A green mobile phone case | Adj + Adj + N + N |
| 5) | A bright green mobile phone case | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N |
| 6) | A bright green mobile phone case with my name on | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Prepositional phrase |
| A prepositional phrase is a phrase that begins with a preposition, e.g. in my pocket, by the computer | ||
| 7) | A bright green mobile phone case with my name on that was made in Korea | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Prepositional phrase + Relative clause |
| A relative clause is a clause that begins with – that, which, who, whom, whose, where | ||
| 8) | A bright green mobile phone case made in Korea and with my name on | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Participial clause + Prepositional phrase |
| This is still actually a relative clause as 7) above, but can you see how the grammatical structure of the clause has changed to include a past participle instead? | ||
| 9) | A bright green mobile phone case made in Korea that/which Amy loves | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Participial clause + Relative clause |
| 10) | A bright green mobile phone case that was lying on the sand | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Relative clause |
| 11) | A bright green mobile phone case lying on the sand | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Participial clause |
| This is still actually a relative clause as 10) above, but can you see how the grammatical structure of the clause has changed to include a participle with -ing instead? | ||
| 12) | A bright green mobile phone case with my name on that/which was made in Korea | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Prepositional clause + Relative clause |
| 13) | A bright green mobile phone case which I bought on holiday in Thailand | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Relative clause |
| 14) | A bright green mobile phone case I bought on holiday in Thailand | Adj + Adj + Adj + N + N + Relative clause |
| This is still a relative clause, but the word – which – can be removed when it is followed by a personal pronoun. | ||
Task
Build a complex noun phrase from the collection of words and phrases below and type your answers in the boxes provided starting with the words given to you. The first one has been done for you.
| indicate | probably | sometimes |
| may (be) | commonly | is likely to |
| suggest | to a large extent | tend to |
| approximately | in general | seem |
5. Sophisticated Connecting Words
Task
Read the text below from the article you have seen before about Creativity and choose the correct cohesive device from the drop-down boxes.
6. Complex Sentence Structure (Subordination)
Subordination is a feature of writing that communicates the relationships between different ideas and, therefore, it is a very common feature of academic writing. A subordinate clause is also called a dependent clause, because it ‘depends’ on a main clause to complete its meaning. That sentence is a perfect example.
| A subordinate clause is also called a dependent clause. | This is a complete sentence. Subject + verb + complement |
| because it ‘depends’ on a main clause to complete its meaning | This is an incomplete sentence, because it contains a hook. The hook is the connector because. This clause needs to hook onto the main clause in order to make sense. |
Task
Match each clause on the left with a clause on the right to form a complex sentence containing a main clause and a subordinate clause. As you can see, the subordinate/dependent clause may sometimes come before or after the main clause. In each case, the hooks in the dependent clauses have been highlighted. Write your answers in the table below.
7. Tense and Time
The simple present (e.g. write/writes) and present perfect (e.g. has/have written) are common verb forms used in academic writing. The past simple (e.g. wrote) occurs more frequently in specific parts of an academic paper such as the description of the methodology or the experiment. Look carefully below at an explanation of some of the uses of these three verb forms and try to use this knowledge to complete the task that comes after.
| Verb Form | Function | Some possible time word signals | Example sentences |
| The present perfect | To describe a change that has happened over a period of time | in recent years, since, in the last month, this week | My niece has grown so much taller since I last saw her. |
| To emphasise a present result | He’s eaten up all his birthday cake. | ||
| To describe recent actions | recently, just | He’s just got back from a business trip to Shanghai. | |
| To talk about one’s accomplishments with no specific time mentioned | My sister has learned how to eat with chopsticks! | ||
| The present simple | To describe a fact that is true at the present time | She has three children. | |
| To describe current habits | I go to the dentist twice a year. | ||
| The past simple | To talk about completed actions in the past | A past time is either stated or implied. e.g. last week, in 2010, five hours ago |
I broke my leg playing football about a year ago. |
Task
Read the introduction to the academic paper - Issues in assessing the academic writing of students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds: Preliminary findings from a study on lecturers’ beliefs and practices – and choose the correct verb form from each of the drop-down menus.
8. The Passive Voice
As mentioned previously, academic writing focuses on information and argumentation, and it requires a certain formality and objectivity which is achieved in one way through the use of the passive voice.
Task 1
Identify and highlight the passive verb forms you find in the introduction to the article below entitled - Student Ratings Offer Useful Input to Teacher Evaluations - by Michael Scriven. Next, highlight the subject of each of these verbs.Task 2
Identify any errors in the sentences below taken from the same academic article and type your corrections into the sentences. If you think it would be preferable to use the passive voice rather than the active voice in any sentences, then make the change. Check your answer after each question.
9. Avoidance of Personal Pronouns & Using the Full Form of Words
Rewrite the sentences below in an academic style in the boxes provided by removing the personal pronouns and contractions. In some cases you may need to change other words and/or alter the structure of the sentence. Consider, for example, whether the passive voice might be more natural. Also, decide whether the words people or you could be replaced with a more specific word. Compare each of your answers with those provided.
Task
10. Conciseness
The following sentences are very wordy and therefore not concise. Rewrite them in a more academic style by using fewer words. Remove any repetitions and personal pronouns. Try to convert verb-based sentences into sentences that contain complex noun phrases. Begin your sentences with the words provided and include the words that appear in brackets. Compare your answer in each case with the model given.
Task
| indicate | probably | sometimes |
| may (be) | commonly | is likely to |
| suggest | to a large extent | tend to |
| approximately | in general | seem |
11. Listing/Exemplifying
The sentences below taken from an academic article entitled - Technology and Adult Learning: Current Perspectives by Imel, S. – contain ideas in a list, but they have not been written in a concise way. There are grammatical problems too, because the items in the list are sometimes structured differently. Verb forms, in particular, should remain the same. Let’s look at an example.
This paper begins by describing approaches for integrating technology into adult learning and then we will consider how technology can be used to support adult learning and also to expand it.
Notice how the verb forms in red are different. They should be the same.
The use of the personal pronoun – we – is also not academic.
The very last part of the sentence is wordy and can be made shorter.
A better way to write this sentence would be:
This paper begins by describing approaches for integrating technology into adult learning and then considers how technology can be used to support and expand adult learning.
Task
Now you try. Write your improved academic-style sentences in the boxes below and then compare each of your answers with the model provided.
| indicate | probably | sometimes |
| may (be) | commonly | is likely to |
| suggest | to a large extent | tend to |
| approximately | in general | seem |
12. Reporting Structures
Task
Different reporting verbs use different grammatical patterns. Students sometimes make mistakes by mixing the patterns up. Look at the sentences below and choose the ones that contain no errors by clicking on the blue buttons on the right.
| indicate | probably | sometimes |
| may (be) | commonly | is likely to |
| suggest | to a large extent | tend to |
| approximately | in general | seem |
13. Sophisticated and Logical Cohesion
Task
Read the introduction to the academic journal article below entitled - Becoming a Teacher Educator: The Multiple Boundary-Crossing Experiences of Beginning Teacher Educators – by John Trent. Highlight any words or phrases that hold this text together and that help it to flow logically. Such devices are called cohesive devices and include items such as:
- Words that refer back to other words or ideas in the text. These could be synonyms or pronouns such as ‘it’ or ‘them’
- Linking words or signposts such as ‘however’ or ‘in addition’
- Balancing word forms in lists
- Relative pronouns like ‘who’ or ‘which’
You will only be able to highlight in one colour, but it will still help you to identify the cohesive devices. Afterwards, compare your highlighted text to the answer.